Casting into a Dieing Sea; The Unfortunate Reality of World Fisheries

Over the past century, the world has turned what used to be one of the planet’s most bountiful resources into an overexploited possession. Fish populations worldwide are becoming threatened by the growing demand for fish products. This occurrence is largely due to the world’s growing population and increased standards of living. It is estimated that one out of every five people depend on seafood as a main source of protein in their diet (Richard). Furthermore, countless regions and even entire countries rely on fishing operations to sustain their communities. The countess other world issues however, that are tied in with fisheries depletion are not the root causes for concern. The cause for concern lies within commercial and factory fishing, and the lack of global concern for a sustainable future. The effects of mass fishing have already devastated fish populations such as the Atlantic Cod, and has displayed devastating effects on marine biomes. Growing tastes for specific species of fish has also contributed to the repulsive amounts of bycatch caught, killed and released into the sea. The root causes of this global threat lie within man’s greed, not man’s need. Due to the tremendous negative impacts faced by global fish populations, fisheries sustainability is one of the most significant issues of the twenty-first century. The core threats originate in the growing and highly competitive commercial markets, the unsustainable methods of fishing, and the lack of political will to tackle illegal and irresponsible operations. The global consequences of fisheries depletion are endless, and the ripple effect is truly devastating. The western world is at most times detached from the hardships in foreign nations, but when it comes to fisheries, it is directly affected and part of the problem. Oceans house amazing and vast amounts of resources, and it is every nation’s right to take their fair share. But with rights come responsibilities, and in an environment as fragile as our world oceans, it takes all but one source of abuse to take down entire ecosystems and wipe out species. The crisis that has been occurring in our oceans over the past century is an issue often ignored in the media. It is an issue that takes a back seat to concerns humans have with things they can directly see or witness. Due to this disturbing ignorance, the problems have grown and are now able to be seen on a shocking scale, spreading their effects on both the natural and economic world.

A Brief History of World Fisheries

There was in fact a time when the world’s fisheries were perfectly sustainable. It was a time when populations thrived and lived within their natural environments in harmony. As shocking as this may be, this time was just a few centuries ago, and in the past century situations gotten even worse. In a mere one hundred years, man has turned what has thrived for millions of years into a threatened resource (Skerry, 34). In 1497, John Cabot sailed from Europe across the Atlantic Ocean. He arrived in North America, to what he called “New Founde Land” and discovered the bounty of the native seas (Canada, 3). At this time, great explorers and sailors would report on the amazing amounts of fish in the oceans; oceans which had never been fished before (see Appendix 1.1). As John Cabot reported, fish could be caught by simply dropping a net into the water, and hoisting up your catch (Ibid). Skill was not needed for catching this rich resource off the coasts of North America, and due to this find, by 1550, 400 ships per season would make the trip to fish the enormous supply of fish such as cod and Halibut (Ibid). These however, were the days without the massive amounts of technology invested into huge fishing industries, but come the 1900’s fisheries were in trouble.
As with the industrial and technological revolutions in society, the fishing industry saw its own time of dramatic change and expansion. Operations became more productive, and growing technology ensured a growing catch size. Between 1950 and 1989, the fishing industries saw such great advancement that the world catch went from 67 million tons per year, to 89 million tons. The rapidly increasing global catch sizes meant one thing to industries, and that was more profit. Newly acquired tastes for certain species led to over-harvesting in many fisheries, and population groups were fished relentlessly until the vessels had to move due to declining catch. In Brief, the world’s fisheries were becoming unsustainable, and the rate at which they were being caught was, and still is, much higher than that at which they can reproduce.

The Boom and Bust: The Reasons Behind Depletion

People often don’t view the world oceans as a delicate system. It is commonly viewed as a dangerous expanse of our world, and one with endless resources. Unfortunately, just like on land, our world oceans have been polluted and abused so badly that populations are on a sharp decline, and the ocean environment is being destroyed. It is estimated that many large fish species such as the shark and Blue Fin Tuna, have seen up to 90% depletion in their populations since 1900 (Sharkwater). However, it is not only the large species that face depletion and deserve attention. The world needs to focus on the foundations of the aquatic food chain, and how every link plays an important role in world oceans.
When the base of a food chain is disturbed, everything else above it is affected.
Plankton and ocean plant life is at the base of this food chain, and it is starting to disappear. This can be tied in with many other world issues as well, such as global warming, waste disposal and animal rights. Due to the damaged ozone layer, ultraviolet radiation is harming the microscopic organisms in world oceans. This radiation is also affecting juvenile fish species (Canada). According to the Scripps Institute
of Oceanography in California, “The population of Zooplankton in the waters off the coast of Southern California has declined by 70% in the last 42 years” (Ibid). This is most unfortunate news for both the fisheries, as well as the fishing industry. It is generally seen that where there is more plankton, there are more fish, and the most populated waters are mainly along coastlines where plankton is abundant (see Appendix 2.1). One major problem with waste disposal is that it affects fisheries in their most vulnerable environments. Disposal is usually along coastlines or in rivers leading out to sea. These just happen to be the locations where fish populations are most abundant, and offspring are commonly born. Due to human development, waters along these regions are getting cloudier. Erosion, construction, pollution and fishing techniques cause the water to become gloomy with kicked up mud and other debris (Ibid). This blocks the sunlight that countless ocean plants use for photosynthesis providing our world with oxygen. In fact, ocean plants provide 70% of the oxygen in our atmosphere (Sharkwater).
Further destructions comes with how fishing industries conduct their operations. A negative trend has emerged know as the boom and bust, and regardless of how many times this has happened, fishing industries persist in using the same destructive methods. It has occurred so often, that analysts divide it up into four stages. First we see the discovery, when fisherman discover a new abundant population of fish species in an area not previously explored. As the word spreads, intense exploration of the area begins and commercial fisheries are given large catch sizes due to high population, resulting in high profit (Berrill, 4). Due to the good times and extra profit, the second stage begins to unfold known as the expansion. It is like any other business; the industries improve their operations and technology, and begin fishing with a much higher intensity thanks to their abundant income (Ibid). Following the massive expansion phase comes depletion of the fish populations in that area, or even as an entire species. As the fishing industries try to expand to maintain their large catch sizes, they overextend the use of the fisheries, and as a result, lose money. Their costly operations rely on high catch sizes, but when the fisheries enter population depletion and catch sizes are lower, they can no longer afford such costly operations (Ibid). The final stage of this series, and the most unfortunate, is the collapse of the fishery. This is also followed by a probable debt or bankruptcy to the fishing industry. In many cases, the fishery has been so badly damaged, it has to be shut down, and many fishermen go unemployed (Ibid).




The Victims of the Boom and Bust

There are countless cases to demonstrate the boom and bust cycle. We in Canada often hear most about the Atlantic cod fishery. The first immigrants to the East Coast, coming from England and Ireland, were completely dependant on Cod. Each summer, the fish would swim to the coastal areas and the fisherman would catch them with line and hooks. It was then salted, dried, and stored to support the growing human population (Canada, 8). Come the mid-1800’s, the cod fisheries began a massive expansion. Many nations began to realize the opportunity this bountiful source of protein provided, and it was not long until large numbers of fishing vessels sailed off the shores of the East Coast (Ibid). In March of 1954, a technological advancement came out of Scotland that would forever change world fishing industries. Scotland introduced the Fairtry, the first factory freezer trawler with nets that could be hauled over its stern (better for all weather conditions). It was equipped with automatic filleting machines and cold storage devices (Ibid). Electronic Equipment and location devices came about, allowing fishermen to literally see the cod, and drop their nets right on top of them This brought the catch from 300,000 tones per year, to 775,000 by the 1980’s (Ibid). Despite the warning of populations declining, most fishing industries ignored this information and were even encouraged by the government with subsidies (Ibid, 10). As more nations got involved and technology increased, the cod population decreased exponentially. From 1990-1994, the Atlantic cod stock off the east coast of Canada fell 95% (See Appendix 3.1).
Another fine example can be seen with the California sardine. This fishery use to be rich and abundant just as any other, but fame led to its downfall. Sardines live in large schools, making them a fishermen’s dream. These schools were as large as a few hundred million fish spanning a diameter of eight kilometers (Berrill, 6). Upon their decline, the sardines still maintained their large schools, just less of them, making the ease of capture relatively the same (Ibid). Their demand grew in global markets, and the fishery expanded far beyond its sustainable limit. The fishery ultimately saw its peak and then sharp collapse in 1935 (See Appendix 3.2). Whenever one fishery collapses, the fishing industry doesn’t just shut down and die, they move on to the next available resource and start the cycle all over again. After the collapse of the California sardine the Peruvian anchoveta was next on the list. This is no doubt one of the most devastating examples of the boom and bust. The anchoveta was a species untouched until the 1950’s (Berrill, 8). It entered the boom phase as the global demand for fish meal products was on the rise, and the profit of fishing operations was increasing dramatically (Ibid). Peru ended up buying the California canneries and fishing vessels once used for sardines and dominated the world market (Ibid). The anchoveta fishery off the coasts of Peru grew so drastically, that it accounted for 25% of the world catch by the mid 1960’s (Ibid, 9). A short while later, in 1970, the fishery hit its peak, and the unsustainable practice collapsed closing down the fishery (Ibid). (See Appendix 3.2)

Bycatch and the Destructive Methods of Fishing

The root causes of the damage done to marine ecosystems and countless fisheries is due to the abusive and unsustainable methods of fishing. The main three categories of fishing techniques are impounding, entangling, or hook and line (Commercial Fishing, 107). The method of impounding involves surrounding schools of fish with long nets. One example of this method is the purse seine. The second method, the method of entangling can be seen by the use of gill nets. These are long nets that remain suspended in the water where schools of fish are known to swim by. As the fish pass through, they get tangled in the net’s fibers and holes. These nets are so massive, that just one gill net can hold multiple thousand pounds of catch. To put this into perspective is the following quote from Michael Berrill’s book “The Plundered Seas”;

“Imagine a ship of 300 to 400 tonnes, with a crew of fifteen to twenty, able to stay at sea for one to two months, setting its nets one a day. The nets, called driftnets, come in five to ten sections, each 5 to 10 kilometers long. When set, the entire net is 25 to 55 kilometers long, hanging like an invisible curtain 10 to 15 meters below the sea surface.”

These nets obviously do not have a specific catch, and countless different unwanted species get tangled and die each year in their grasp. Hook and line methods, also known as long lining, is one of the other methods used that can be just as damaging. It consists of a long fishing line, often miles line with hundreds or thousands of hooks. The hooks often remain suspended in the water, as many long lines are attached to floats on the surface (Ibid). Arguably the most destructive method of fishing is bottom trawling. It involves towing large nets behind a fishing vessel, which drag across the ocean floor to collect catch. These nets are held opened by giant steel structured tied to each end that dig into the sea bed keeping the net flush with the ocean floor (Skerry, 39). It would be like randomly driving a giant bull-dozer through the city. Bottom trawling causes massive habitat destruction, including coral shattering, and seaweed removal (Ibid). (To see visual examples of these methods of fishing, see Appendix 4.1)
Large fishing operations are not as advanced and specific as some people would think. Although their technology is impressive, and their catch sizes are high, many people don’t stop to think what is actually being used, or discarded. Bycatch is a major threat to the world’s marine ecosystems, affecting both marine animals as well as plant species and crucial habitat. This issue is partly the cause of populations decline in literally all large ocean predators, which have seen 90% depletion in the past fifty years (Halweil, 70). Countless vessels out for a specific species, will often catch large amounts of fish that either do not meet the proper specifications or market value, or are not even the intended species (Berrill, 62-72). This is a major problem in almost all commercial fishing methods, but a particular problem with long lining and trawling which may account for up to 50% of all bycatch (Skerry, 39). European and Asian markets have been some of the worst for this problem, and situations around the world have yet to see any substantial recovery. The World wildlife Federation noted in 2006 that up to 80% of catches in the North Sea fisheries are thrown overboard dead, or to die. They also stated that for every swordfish illegally caught off the coasts of Morocco, two sharks are killed in the process ("Commercial Fishing Devastates Europe's Oceans - WWF"). Bycatch has never been by any means a small issue. It is estimated that 30% of the fish caught around the world are thrown back, which accounts for billions of fish per year (Ibid). In many cases, fishermen will haul in large nets full of fish, none of which they will keep. Some fisheries however, are worse than others, and growing competition in world markets are further intensifying the situation, leading to more bycatch (Skerry,53). In the more recent years, West Africa’s fisheries are heading in the same direction as Europe’s, and the large amounts of bycatch which could be used as much needed food for Africa is thrown back, as it is of little value to larger world markets (Ibid). (See Appendix 4.2 for examples and visuals of bycatch)
Long lining operations around the world are notorious for catching sharks and other large fish species. In many cases, the sharks are only used for their fins and then thrown overboard, dead or alive (Sharkwater). This has become a massive problem due to the growing markets in Asia, particularly China, where the fins can be sold for four hundred dollars per kilogram (Ibid). Worldwide, it is estimated that 40 million sharks per year are killed just for their fins (Skerry, 33). Bycatch its not only a problem with fish species, but tons of other coastal and ocean wildlife, and in some cases, it is not alive at all. As displayed in appendix 4.2, everything from ocean birds, to turtles, to corals can get caught in the process. While long lining, baited hooks also catch the eye of sea turtle and birds looking for a meal. In many cases, these animals will die as they can not free themselves from the trap (Sharkwater). Bottom trawling presents an all new breed of bycatch, and that is large amounts of structure picked up from the ocean floor. The large steel weights that hold down their nets shatter corals, rip up plant life and kick up mud clouds so massive, they can be seen by satellite (Refer back to appendix 4.2 – bottom trawling). These trawling operations are common when fishing for shrimp and prawns, which are one of the worst fisheries in terms of bycatch (Berrill, 63). For every one million tones of shrimp caught, there is five million tons of bycatch (Ibid). Crab fisheries are also among the worst, with over half of the catch being thrown back (Ibid). (see chart in appendix 4.3)
Global Markets and the effects of the First World Appetite

In Canada, the fishing and oceans industry has an output value of about $22.7 billion dollars. The industry employs 152,000 Canadians with a total commercial catch of over 1 million tons (DFO). The amount of fishing vessels registered in Canada alone totaled 23,244 in 2004. As with countless other nations, many people residing in coastal areas, and large sectors of the economy depend on ocean resources (Ibid). Many nations however, with some of the highest catch sizes (and in some cases over double the Canadian catch – see appendix 5.1) are newly industrialized and developing nations (Berrill, 26). The newly industrialized nations mostly depend on smaller scale fishing operations, and remain relatively close to their coastline compared to the wealthier operations from the developed world. Recently however, due to growing economies and more productive fishing operations, countries like South Korea, and more recently yet, China, have started to fish more distant waters (Ibid). Many of the fisheries along the north and south west Pacific are some of the most abundant in the world (Refer back to appendix 2.1), and only recently have many developing and newly industrialized nation been able to fish them (Bocknek, 12). Between the industrialized world and a growing industry in the developing worlds, the annual global production of fish reached 156.3 million tons by the year 2000 (see appendix 5.3).
The western world’s tastes in present day fisheries have dominated the global markets, causing massive destruction. However, more recently it has been the Asian markets with their growing demand that has driven populations to their demise. Between the developed world’s ‘sophisticated’ tastes and the Asian markets demand for shark fin and other wasteful products, many fisheries are being terribly exploited. Boris Worm, the lead researcher at Dalhousie University in Halifax states that one third of seafood species in our oceans have collapsed to this day. He also warms that “If this trend continues, if we don’t change the way we are managing ocean ecosystems, this trend projects that 100% of species will collapse by the year 2048 or around that” (Ommer). The problem with increased demand and higher price tags on fish products does not only harm fish populations, but also the people of developing countries. For example, fisheries off the coasts of Africa are exploited by world markets, leaving local fishermen with declining catch sizes, and depriving locals of the much needed source of protein (Skerry, 41). In many cases, only the carcasses of fish are left to sell in local African markets, as the fillets are sold to higher bidders elsewhere in the world (see appendix 5.4). In order to make a living, many African fishermen can not afford to keep fish that is of no value to global markets, even if it could mean feeding thousands of starving locals. As seen in appendix 4.1, Senegalese fishermen, hoping to catch the sought after shrimp and sole, haul in an ‘empty’ yet full net, wasting valuable protein for Africa. Many third world nations are left with only what they can afford to keep, contributing to hunger and violence. With highly prized delicacies like shark fin selling for top dollar in Asian markets, violence and human exploitation is inevitable. Massive black markets have opened up for such products, and corrupt governments work along with illegal fishing operations to make money (Sharkwater). Countless ships constantly fish illegally for shark and other prized possessions like sturgeon for caviar and don’t get caught. Even when they do get caught however, it is often hard to stop them because of ties with either corrupt government or with gunboats. Many fisheries are so valuable and attractive to poor nations, that militias will even get involved in the process (Ibid).

The Rough Waters Ahead: What Must be Done to Protect World Fisheries

With 0.01% of the oceans closed to fishing, and total collapse of all fisheries in the foreseeable future, protection of world oceans is one of the most contemporary and concerning global concerns (Skerry, 78). After the technological revolution took its toll on global fisheries, researchers began to see the astronomical damage that industries were inflicting on the world oceans. Unfortunately, by the time many boom and bust cycles are caught in the act, they are already in the stage of depletion and exploitation, with no real governing body to put a soon enough stop on the operations. Many markets are uncontrollable as they operate on a global scale with national boundaries prohibiting intervention by protection agencies found in much of the developed world. Managing our world oceans is not as simple as monitoring one or two species in a few particular areas. Countless ocean environments are interconnected forming a massive ecosystem, every part affecting one another in astonishing ways. When one link of this global chain is removed or weakened, it affects the sustainability of the entire system. This is why it is up to every nation to do its part to help restore the world’s fisheries. David Suzuki, one of the world’s most renowned environmentalists, has laid out ten principles to managing our fisheries in the future (Suzuki). First off, as stated above, one must look at and manage the entire ecosystem, not individual stocks. Secondly, the world needs to adopt a more precautionary approach to the management of our fisheries. It is better to err on the side of caution than to risk irreversible damage as seen in the past. Another major shift that the world must see is giving the say to people who are for the best interests of the fisheries, not profit. If the world continues to let the industry and global market demand decide, the unfortunate forecasts of future fisheries are likely to come true. The world must also decrease its wasteful capacity, and plan sustainable fishing methods that work around natural fluctuation in fishery populations. If there is a lack of understanding or regulation regarding natural cycles, industry will continue to fish when species are in vulnerable positions. Biodiversity is another concern that must be dealt with to ensure a healthy and balanced future in world oceans. Every species plays an important role in the balance of ocean ecosystems. Every species is an important link to this global chain, and crucial to the survival of many other species. The habitat of these species also need top priority if overall health of the environment is to exist. Trawling operations threaten this very element, and until operations respect the fish habitat, they will not be able to respect the fish species. In regards to bycatch, and the needs to reduce it, the reasons are self explanatory. The oceans can not afford the millions of tons of discarded species, and furthermore, the world should not stand for these immoral practices. The countless fish caught as bycatch all play a significant role in the ocean ecosystem. When species like shark, and even fish lower on the food chain are caught by the millions, it disrupts global balance and throws off the entire food web. Finally, the world markets and consumers must be educated. The issues regarding fisheries sustainability must come out of the dark, and be shared with the world to help consumers make contentious decisions. Until people realize how the food they eat got on their plate, and the impact that it had on the world, demand will allow the destructive methods to continue (Ibid). (For a list of sustainable seafood products, see appendix 6.1 regarding low to high risk species.)
The irresponsible practices in today’s fishing scene not only exploit countless species of marine wildlife, but also millions of people in the developing world. It is my belief this problem will one day be solved, but it will take a global effort. If we see this issue as merely a low priority concern, and never give it the global recognition it needs to be solved, we will not make any headway. The world’s view towards many ocean species also disadvantages them in terms of protection, because species like the shark are not as cute and cuddly as pandas or monkeys. Why does everybody sit still while millions of sharks are slaughtered for their fins, and thrown back to die an agonizing death? The world must understand all creatures deserve equal respect, and it can not be justified to let our oceans die right before our very eyes. I know what harm we are causing today, and I know that future generations will look back at the irreversible harm we have caused and wonder why we chose to ignore the problems. Yet we should never forget that the gloomy forecasts put out by experts are only true if we continue our current patterns; only true, if we let them happen. Perhaps the most significant legislative changes will have to come from environmental protection agencies and the fishing industry itself, but there is one thing that trumps these two elements combined; the consumer. In the end, it is the consumer that decides what the industries fish for; it is the consumer, that decides what populations are being threatened or saved, and it is the consumer, who can save our world’s most vast and incredible resource, our world fisheries.

Works Cited
Berrill, Michael and David Suzuki. The Plundered Seas: can the world's fisheries be saved?_. Nancy Flight. 1615 Venables Street, Vancouver, British Columbia: Greystone Books, Douglas & Mcintyre, 2001.

Bocknek, Jonathan. _World Fisheries: Understanding Global Issues_. Tina Schwarzenbeger. North Mankato, Minnesota, USA: Smart Apple Media, 2002.

Canada and the World. _Net Loss: the crisis in world fisheries_. Waterloo, Ontario: Taylor Publishing Consultants Ltd., 2001.

"Commercial Fishing Devastates Europe's Oceans - WWF." Switzerland: September 28, 2006. Reuters News Service. April12, 2008.

.
Commercial Fishing. _Macmillan Encyclopedia of the environment_. Stephen R. Kellert, Matthew Black et. al. 2. New York: Macmillan Library Reference USA, Simon and Schuster, 1997. 107-109.

"DFO Core Activities." Communications Branch, Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Economic Impact. 2007. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. April 2, 2008. http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/index-eng.htm.

Halweil, Brian and Lisa Mastny. State of the World, 2004. A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress Towards a Sustainable society. _The Consumer Society_. Linda Starke. 2004. New York, NY: W.W Norton & Company, Inc, Castle House, 2004. 13-17, 70-71, 92-93.

Molyneaux, Paul. _Swimming in Circles; Aquaculture and the end of the World Oceans_. 245 West 17th St., New York, NY: Thunder Mouth Press, 2007.

Ommer, E. Rosemary. "Sustainability of Fish and Fisheries in Canada." Canadian Federation for the Humanities and Social. Eco-research project, MUN. April 22, 2008.

http://www.fedcan.ca/english.fromold/breakfast-ommer0398.cfm.

Richard, Jean Francois. "A Fishy Situation." High Noon: Twenty Global Problems, Twenty Years to. 2002. April 21, 2008. http://www.theglobalist.com/DBWeb/StoryID=2647.

"Scientists Warn of Depletion of Ocean fish in 40 Years." April 2, 2008. http://www/planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/38286/story.htm.

Sharkwater.­ DVD, Rob Stewart and David Hannan. An Alliance Films release, Sharkwater Productions Inc. and Warner Bros. Inc., Canada 2008.

Skerry, Brian. "Still Waters: The Global Fish Crisis." National Geographic Saving the Sea's Bounty (April 2007): 33-99.

Suzuki, David. "Sustainable Fishing." David Suzuki. April 2, 2008. .

A Nation in Peril; The Economic Consequences of Quebec Separation

A Nation in Peril; The Economic Consequences of Quebec Separation

The controversial question of a possible referendum has long been part of the political and social friction between Quebec and the rest of Canada. It is especially contentious because it not only encompasses economic issues, but sovereignty and social issues as well. It can be seen today that the separatist movement is far from over. Separatists in Quebec persist in their claim that the rest of Canada still fails to adequately recognize their unique culture. They believe themselves to be a disadvantaged minority in Canada, and as a result, their political leaders have called referendum after referendum. However, the issues revolving Quebec’s independence are not as simple as a yes or no vote. Throughout the issues history, separatist party leaders have put forth very controversial terms of separation; put in brief, they want full independent recognition while getting countless benefits from the Canadian government and economy. How could this be fair to other provinces? Or perhaps a far larger concern would be what sort of message this puts across to other minority groups in Canada. Referendum after referendum, the vote has turned out with a majority ‘no’, but despite the persistent refusal by the majority of Quebecers to form a separate entity, politicians persist. But putting social issues aside for the moment, there are more disastrous concerns lying in another realm. The separation of Quebec to form its own nation would undoubtedly prove to be an economic and political disaster for both Quebec and Canada. The fact that these issues are tied in with social passions just make the issue even more delicate. As John McCallum puts it, “If passions dominated economic rationality and the breakup were bitter and acrimonious, the consequences would be much worse”. McCallum is Chair and Professor of Economics at McGill University in Montreal. His reasoning coincides with those of many other economists, but like any other economic forecast, it is hard to predict the true possibilities of such a major event.
A Brief History of the Quebec Separatist Movement

The thoughts of separation between the Francophones and the Anglophones can be traced back as far as the 1700’s. However, the most influential and significant movements relevant for this topic and for sovereignty can be seen throughout the 1900’s and in contemporary society. Some would argue that the whole issue of a referendum got started and hit its peak intensity in the 1960’s. During this time, Quebec became the center of a terrorist movement to separate Quebec from the rest of Canada to form a French speaking nation; as Canada at the time recognized only English as its official language. The roots of separatism therefore emerged to be mainly based on culture and race. Separatists also insisted that Canada was holding them back in terms of government policies. The leading terrorist group in the 1960’s and 1970’s, known as the FLQ (Front de Liberation du Quebec), lead a movement against Anglophones and the government (Black October). Known as ‘Black October’ in 1970, it was the peak of terrorist actions against the government, including over 400 bombings, and the kidnapping of political leaders. This period came to be known as Canada’s worst peacetime crisis, and one which initiated a long battle to come (Ibid). The issues of independence is still important today because although Canada recognized both English and French as the official languages of Canada in 1974, many people feel nothing has really been accomplished (The Roots of Quebec Separation). Quebec is still a francophone province, with 80% of its population speaking French, and there is still active separatism within it (Ibid). Although the issue has calmed down since the events of the 1960’s, the root concerns and issues brought forth by the separatist movement are still present. A referendum held in 1980 for Quebec to become an independent nation was wholly turned down, and the same outcome was seen in 1992. However, in 1995, the votes took a shocking and drastic turn about. The referendum results were 50.58% ‘No’, and 49.42% ‘Yes’, the closest call in history (The Roots of Separatism).
The Results of the 1995 Referendum – (Nationalism and French Canada)
No
50.58%
2,362,648
Yes
49.42%
2,308,360
Valid Ballots
98.18%
4,757,509
Rejected Ballots
1.82%
86,501
Participation Rate
93.52%
4,757,509
Registered Voters
---------
5,087,009
“No” Majority
1.16%
54,288

What this shows is that the younger generations seem to be more inclined to separate than those slightly older generations of the recent past. Furthermore there is a clear separation of the people who vote for or against this issue. The natives in northern Quebec almost entirely vote no, as well as those in most urban areas. It tends to be the more ‘old fashioned’ rural areas of Quebec voting the overwhelming ‘yes’. As one FLQ member, Paul Rose, had said, “ I didn’t belong to any political party, I just decided to join and protest as a Quebequoi. Our parents were nationalists, it’s something that all Quebecers grew up with…”(Black October).
Since the close call of 1995, the separatist movement has not really increased in intensity. The following chart shows the support throughout the past (notice the peaks in support) Examples:
-1981, Parti Quebecois (PQ) wins re-election
- 1994, PQ wins majority in Quebec – 1995, referendum
Chart Citation : (Nationalism and French Canada)

The nationalists in Quebec are currently trying to build back the political will to get the ball rolling once again, but it seems now more than ever that there is a lot more awareness of what separation would really entail. The question must also be clear, and the conditions of separation can no longer be as indecisive as they were in the past. The issue is still important today for all of these reasons; the nationalists in Quebec still want what they wanted 50 years ago, and the economic forecasts of a possible separation in today’s society are seemingly getting worse.

If Quebec were to be compared to other nations that have actually gone through this similar process of separation, a disturbing trend emerges. The very fact that there is so much emotion tied in to the issue puts it on a different level. It would be nice to say emotions and grudges wont be a factor, but human nature says that simply cant be the case. If one looks at the Czech-Slovak separation as an example the evidence of social economic damage is evident. Slovakia’s relations with much of the Czech Republic went downhill (If Quebec Goes) Quebec may very well find the same scenario occurring with western Canada. After Slovakia’s separation, they experienced a 9% decrease in production over two years and their unemployment rate went up by 3% (Ibid). The possibility of the same outcome is very likely in Quebec due to reasons discussed in the next section of this paper. One can also compare Quebec separation to that of the American civil war, and separation of the southern States. After separation, the southern states found they could not support themselves. They lacked all of the crucial societal sectors that they once benefited from with the northern states such as manufacturing and industrial sectors (Sectionalism). This can be seen with Quebec as well, as the rest of Canada surely generates wealth for them in Agriculture, production and natural resources. however, the northern states also lost the benefit of many raw materials gained from the south, and so there is seen a loss to both sides (Ibid). Canada needs Quebec to support many sector of the overall economy. Just one example would be their hydro generation.
Many other independence movements are difficult to compare to Quebec. although many European countries have undergone separation, they were not for the same reasons, or acting under the same system of government. Take Croatia and Yugoslavia for example; the main reasons there were political due to the attempts to escape communism (Economic Growth). In this case, the European Union (EU) offered acceptance, and economic aid was offered by countries such as the USA (Ibid). This however is not the case for Quebec, as it is mainly about racial independence, and they will have a much harder time finding sympathy as a country trying to escape communist rule. Furthermore, Quebec could not be accepted into the EU simply because non of its assets lie on European soil. The only possibility for Quebec to join would be if a European nation such as France were to adopt them, but that would be defeating the purpose of separation in the first place.

The Economic and Social Costs of Quebec Separation

The list of economic and social consequences of separation go on and on for both Quebec and Canada. Economically, and perhaps one of the biggest blows to Canada, would be the extreme amount of tax loss. According to Statistics Canada 2006 census, Quebec had a population of 7,546,131; that makes it the second largest province by population, and all that tax money would be lost. Other than this, much of the major economic losses lie in the short term for both Canada and Quebec. Separation would negatively impact business throughout both nations, due to the “lets wait and see” attitude of potential investors. There would also be issues over federal debts, and business ownership. Even considering Canada’s monetary losses through taxes and business, Quebec wishes to have full Canadian support with currency, military, and other major backbone sectors of society which tax dollars pay for. This is no doubt a lose-lose situation for all of Canada and seems like a win-win for Quebec.
This however is not saying Quebec will only benefit, for the economic effects of separation would surely prove to be disastrous for both Canada and Quebec. But as any issue of this magnitude there are pros and cons. The main factors proving overall ruin are that separation would be disastrous in economic, political, and social regards, are as follows. A large part of the Canadian economy is based in businesses and corporations. Investors are constantly innovating and improving their assets in Canada. If a separation were to occur, it would cause massive uncertainty among the investing world in Canadian business, especially those based in Quebec. Many businesses that are based in Quebec could have to face different policies, taxation laws, and countless other changes including damage to the labour force. This would certainly drive some business out of Quebec to avoid the uncertain economic times. It is estimated that up to 15% of the 1.4 million jobs in Montréal could be lost (If Quebec Goes). In the short run, Quebec would suffer as its own nation, as it would have to assume a large portion of the Canadian debt, perhaps even as much as 22%-27%, (Ibid). Quebec would also lose the annual monetary benefits divided up between provinces, which would be a loss of about 3 billion dollars annually (Ibid). These newly acquired deficits would be added to Quebec’s now shaky economy, and put Quebec’s debts at around 11%-13% of their GDP, that of which would also take a hit (The Economics of Quebec Separation). Quebec also has a history of high unemployment rates, and with uncertainty in the economic markets during the transition phase, unemployment could be a cause for concern (If Quebec Goes). If many people decide to move to Canada, or change their business locations and asset values, this could cause the unemployment and the possible 15% job loss. The following chart is taken from statistics Canada, and shows a slowly recovering trend, but Quebec’s history is still high compared to other provinces. (Ontario = 6.3) (Ibid).

All of the scenarios that could lead to job loss and climbing unemployment rates a very possible, and in fact the most likely outcome. Keynesian economics focuses of government intervention throughout times like this, however, in the midst of all of the other major changes this may be tough. There would not be adequate government focus on intervention to stop the climbing unemployment rates (If Quebec Goes).
At a time like this, as Canada and the United States lie in economic slowdown (which some fear to be an incoming recession), separation may very well put these countries in one. The new Quebec would also be in for a severely damaged economy, as many head offices and large firms may choose to leave or downsize their assets in Quebec. Having a free market economy means that much of the large movements in business assets could not be stopped. Furthermore, a chain of unfortunate events would start to unfold for Quebec. Many Anglophones (who represent about 20% of Quebec’s population), are likely to emigrate to Canada. This large movement would surely disrupt the economy in terms of business and taxes paid to Quebec. (The Economics of Quebec Separation). The purchasing power of Quebecers is also likely to go down at these times for the following reasons. Sectors of service or sectors integrated on a Canada wide scale would see an increase in costs by about 5% according to economist Marcel Cote. Many service sectors of things such as natural gas and telephone lines would see increased costs, due to the across boarder transfers (Ibid). if Quebecers have to pay more for the staple products and imports of commodities, the overall purchasing power will see a decline in Quebec (Ibid) Politically, a major part of the Canadian government is centered around Quebec, and the fact that Canada is a bilingual country is a result of Quebec. There are more than 25,000 federal civil servants working out of Quebec (for Canada), and if separation were to occur, much of the political sector in Quebec would likely crumble within months (Ibid). This would be due to politician wanting to remain in Canada, an the mass amount of job loss and voter in-confidence. Many speculators like Marcel Cote would also suggest major markets based in Quebec would suffer: “Quebec Dairy Farmers would lose a third of their highly protected market, representing shipments of $1 billion a year to the rest of Canada” (Ibid). This is not to say that Canada will cut ties, however, it does suggest that Quebec would lose it’s protection in Canadian markets. Cote also goes on to suggest that many of the natural resource sections may not suffer significantly. The major exporters will still have ties with other nations to export their goods. It would be the impact on urban areas and smaller private business sectors, due to their reliance on protected sales throughout Canada (If Quebec Goes). One must also look at the economic goals of a country. In order for investments to thrive, there must be political stability. It is seen that every time a referendum vote is present, the Canadian economy is shaken. Imagine the effects if Quebec were to actually follow through with separation. Economic growth is also a major goal, and due to the downsizing and uncertain times of both nations, this could not be accomplished. Price stability would also be a major concern for Canada, and especially for Quebec. The unhealthy state of both economies would surly push Canadian monetary value down, and deflation is possible. This would have a ripple effect on all of Canada, and further discourage investments (Economics Now).


The following gives examples of the different factors that would contribute to deflation in the economy:

Convergence of Adjustment Pressures
Real Shocks:
- Montreal
- Farmers
- protected markets
-others

Restrictive Fiscal Policy:
- Budget Cuts
- Tax increase
- adopted federal debts

Restrictive Monetary Policy:
- high interest rates
- Capital outflow
- loss of investments
Territorial Disputes
(Aboriginals)

All = DEFLATIONARY PRESSUREScitation - (figure 1: If Quebec Goes…)

Canada would also have to negotiate key elements into the negotiation, such as asset division, and government forces division. The Bank of Canada for instance would remain Canadian only, as Cote suggests, and Quebec would only be able to take its share of the assets (Ibid). Other divisions such as those regarding military force would also cause tension. Armed forces division is unlikely to go smoothly since every fighting member is under the title “Canadian Armed Forces”. It becomes easy to see where great possibility for an uprising could occur. Quebec would now have to pay for a national defense force without as much total government revenue. Marcel Cote and other economists estimates that Quebec would have to cut military spending by about 25% , or $700 million (Ibid). This would give Quebec a total military allowance of $2 billion, which is $200 million less than they Currently get from Ottawa (Ibid). Compared to Canada, who spend approximately $385 per capita on military, Quebec would only spend $280 which would be among some of the lowest levels worldwide (Ibid).

Due to the fact that Economics is seen as a social science, social aspects of this issue must also be addressed. One must look at the image separation would puts out to all other provinces or other minorities. Canada should not be seen as a group of separate entities, but rather a united country of vast diversity and acceptance. The question that must be asked is why should Quebec be able to separate and form its own nation? What if all provinces decided to do this? The separation of Quebec could very well be the first step towards a major Canadian breakdown. If other provinces were to all break off, the economic consequences for Canada would be unimaginable. Losing an entire province means losing an entire part of the countries economy, and it is usually worse for the new nation, as it must ‘rebuild’ itself in one sense. One can compare this again to the struggle of the southern states after their newly claimed independence. One other significant group in Canada is the aboriginal communities. Regardless of other current issues seen between the natives and Canada, there is no doubt that most of the native people would not want to leave Canada (The Economics of Quebec Separation). This is partly because native land claims deal with treaties between Canada and the aboriginal people, and most of Quebec’s land mass is seen as native land. This would undoubtedly unwrap up an all new issue with the native communities. As mentioned before, the native regions of Quebec almost entirely voted ‘No’ in all referendums. Just like the Meech Lake Accord in 1990, the aboriginal communities would not tolerate the injustice, and would one again demand appropriate recognition. (Nationalism in French Canada).

A Brief Look at the Possible Benefits and Long Term Sustainability

It can be generally assumed that in the long run, Quebec may very well be in good shape by global standards. An example of this short term struggle, but long term stability can be found in many of the smaller European countries. If we assume that a separation would happen amicably, there are a few possible benefits for Quebec and Canada. First off, Quebec would get the global recognition it has long strived for, and would hopefully be recognized and accepted by NAFTA, the UN and other international institutions. Quebec would be able to sign agreements, taking part of the armed forces, and setting up common institutions between itself and Canada. The Canadian dollar would be used in Quebec, making trade between Quebec and Canada easier, and more efficient. Accepting this, the PQ also says that they will have little influence, if any, on Canadian monetary policy. Due to a separation, Canada would also be rid of approximately 25% of its federal debt, and would no longer have to support Quebec with its annual division of monetary benefits, a $3 billion savings. Quebec would also no longer assume any debt placed on them by the rest of Canada, and they can manage their own institutions as they wish with their own fiscal policies. In the long run, investors will see the remaining and growing potential in both Canada and Quebec, and business will once again find its place and flourish. Politically, and somewhat humorously, Canada will no longer have to deal with what has been a long and painful battle with the separatists. On the same note, the nationalists in Quebec will no longer feel they are taking a back seat in Canada. Perhaps one of the largest benefits for many people of Quebec is not one of monetary concerns at all. They would finally receive complete recognition as a unique and separate nation. The nationalists in Quebec would get what they have really been after, and as Jane Jacobs puts it, we are all somewhat the same:

“We care that we have a community. We care how our nation fares, care on a level deeper by far than concern with what is happening to the gross national product. Our feelings of who we are twine with the feelings about our nation, so that when we feel proud of our nation we somehow feel personally proud. When we feel ashamed of our nation, …the shame or the sorrow hits home” (The Question of Separatism).

Local Issues, Personal Opinion, and Final Conclusion

The issue revolving Quebec separation seem to hit home not only in Quebec, but all over the rest of Canada as well. I myself even tend to get caught up in the complex issues. The reason behind this is because it doesn’t only affect Quebec, it affects every province in Canada on a political and social level. Quebec is part of Canada, and regardless of how the western provinces feel about the nationalists in Quebec, we should all try to realize we would be losing a part of ourselves. Separation is not so much ridding Canada of a problem as it is creating many new ones in our economy, and ruining our country’s heritage. Quebec does not belong to Quebecers, it belongs to Canadians. In my opinion, such a major political and financial decision should not only be left to one province. Separatists want an independent nation to recognize their independent heritage, but what about Canadian heritage? The predictions laid out under the possible long term benefits are just as the heading suggests, possible, and long term. When it all comes down to it, the rosy scenarios are likely to be far from the reality, and separation will most likely be far from pleasant (If Quebec Goes). It would be difficult to negotiate practical terms of separation, and the shaky economic times presented by separation would make the division of debt and assets a major problem for Canada and Quebec (Ibid). As economic and political times grow hostile, so will the territorial battles between the natives and Quebec. their land treaties and benefits come from Canada, and they would most likely not want to get involved with making new arrangements with Quebec (it isn’t even their jurisdiction). The very hope that these issues can be solved amicably, in my opinion, is ridiculous. As many would say, and I would agree, “Canada is a healthy country convinced it is sick” (Explaining Quebec Separatism). This is especially true for the nationalist in Quebec, who would likely never feel they are satisfactorily represented, and thus we lie in a vicious cycle. Canada tries to please Quebecers, and their political parties respond with more demands, and more blackmail. In a political sense, Quebec has taken Canada hostage. It is in my opinion that the majority of Quebecers supporting separation don’t realize the major impact that this would have on Canada, and on Quebec. They have gotten themselves so tied up in race that they are failing to see what Canada is all about, multiculturalism and unity. Besides these points, the social passions have taken them away from the multitude of economic impacts.
I came across an interesting quote spoken by Lord Durham shortly after arriving in Canada in 1838; “I expected to find a contest between a government and a people; I found to nations warring in the bosom of a single state; I found a struggle, not of principles, but of races” (Nationalism and French Canada). I believe this is what the issue really comes down to, a war of races; a war which should not be fought anywhere, let alone in Canada. Globalization is forcing unity between cultures worldwide, and the thought that Canada is the problem and Quebec becoming an independent nation is the solution is unfounded. The economic consequences placed on Canada and Quebec if separation were to occur are enormous and unaffordable. We would all be affected by the enormous financial losses, the investor in-confidence, and monetary deflation. As Canada rides rough economic times, the impact of separation could very well put it near a recession, and Quebec perhaps in one (If Quebec Goes). Let the other countries given as examples lay out an economic warning for Quebec; for it would be a true tragedy to make the same mistakes. It is my hope that this great nation does not fall victim to these unfortunate happenings. Quebec needs to realize what they have as a part of Canada, and all other provinces must acknowledge their contributions to Canadian society. It is only then that this issue, and the potential threats to the Canadian economy, can be put behind us.

Water Systems; The Foundation for Great Ancient Civilizations

Throughout the past, we have seen the formation of many great civilizations. Like all humans, the populations in these great civilizations that grew and prospered relied heavily on the liquid life-source of water. The development of water systems in ancient civilizations proved to be a momentous advantage and benefit to their people’s standard of living. The advantages they brought about became the basis for influential and strong lasting civilizations. For the Roman Empire, the presence of materials for piping and the development of the aqueducts provided them with access to the necessity of water and allowed them to build up their greatest populous city. Egypt built up its striking prosperous empire using the solid base of well designed irrigation and water systems, a blessing that helped them survive for over 3000 years. For the Inca Empire, their great waterworks helped them to expand their empire throughout an immense part of South America and press forward to become one of the most agriculturally advanced civilizations of their time. Water was a source of life to these great civilizations, which without this necessity, would not have been able to leave their influential mark in history.
The Roman Empire was one of the most startling civilizations in history. Their astounding structural designs and engineering enabled them to build some of the most amazing and valuable water systems. During its imperial times, the city of Rome had a population of well over a million (Roman Aqueducts). Such a massive population enabled them to build up a large and powerful empire using their manpower, but what enabled them to have such immense manpower at their disposal was the development of great waterworks. Their amazing water distribution system was able to provide every person in Rome with one cubic meter of water per day (Roman Aqueducts). They were able to do this thanks to their outstanding aqueduct and piping systems. Rome’s first aqueduct was constucted in 312 B.C.E.. Over the next five hundred years, ten additional aqueducts were built to fulfill increasing demands (Ibid). The aqueducts consisted of channels dug through rock from the water intake in the surrounding hills (Newman, 203). The water ran through filtration systems, and once the water got into the city, it flowed into large cisterns, which enabled the water to be piped throughout the region. Most of it was available to the public through fountain systems, which were positioned at junctions throughout the city (Roman Aqueducts). The people of Rome were given the luxury of flowing water, in a place where they before would have to travel miles to get. The water played a role in their culture, enabling them to have public baths, and these were not only made available to the rich. Baths were a big part in the social life of Rome, and they would incorporate religion into these luxurious meeting places (Trueman). Bath admissions also brought in a steady flow of money to the state, as did selling private pipelines to rich citizens, improving the economic structure in Rome (Trueman).
The demand for water and the need for piping to carry it throughout the city made Rome depend on trade to acquire the proper and essential materials. They used massive amounts of lead for piping, which had to come from Spain or Great Britain, which pushed Rome to expand trade for the construction of these mammoth waterworks (Roman Aqueducts). But above all, these systems brought about massive population growth that led to a city that was in fact the largest of its time. The ability to support such a large population allowed Rome to open its doors to a high degree of specialization in the roles of its people. The more citizens the city had to carry out day-to-day tasks, the more economic room they had to develop. Because Rome was able to uphold such a large population due to their enormous supply of clean water, it was able to build up into a strong prosperous city, and develop a powerful military that made them an influential power. Their water systems were the foundation of their accomplishments, and made them one of the greatest civilizations in ancient history.
The blessing of the Nile River proved to make Egypt one of the most startling civilizations in history. Its rich agriculture that allowed them to prosper was not due to rainfall, but to the flooding of the Nile, and their integration of irrigation systems (Newman, 56). The fortunes of Egypt depended on this annual event, which left behind a new fertile layer of soil in the region (Ibid). Egypt’s wealth was measured in their abundance of food supplies. During the time after the flood, the Egyptian farmers needed a way to retain some water, to provide their fields with fertile soil for extended lengths of time. Irrigation canals and dams were created through fields, and seeds would be planted along these regions (Newman, 56). Along the canals, filled with water from the Nile, they build innovative devices for extracting the water, and raising it to higher ground. One such device was called a shaduf, which was a counterweighted mechanism with a bucket on one end hanging from a rope that was dipped into the canal and then swung over the field (Wilkinson, 35). They also utilized waterwheels to extract water and put it down small channels to bring to other areas (Postel). The ancient Egyptian farmers built large level basins for growing crops next to the river’s edge, and simple channels that took water in at the height of the flood (Postel). It was uncomplicated yet highly effective, and it allowed them to arrange for good flow of water throughout a number of basins, which they controlled using gates. They let the water stay in the fields for forty to sixty days, then had to be drained out at the right time in the growing cycle, back into the river. They did this to ensure that salts would never build up in the soil, and the crops always got a fresh supply of water (Ancient Irrigation).
Due to their success, and thanks to their well planned irrigation systems, Egypt was left with a great agricultural surplus. In fact, crops could be saved and stored years after a surplus season of growth (Ancient Irrigation). Barley and wheat as well as many nourishing vegetables such as onions and lentils prospered in their well irrigated fields (Newman 76-77). They were able to use their agricultural surplus to fulfill religious practices such as offerings to the dead, feed livestock that was used as a source of labour and food, and to feed in abundance their growing working population. These aspects are what make a civilization come together, and have prosperity in an overall aspect. Egypt’s amazing feats of construction were able to be carried out so well because of this abundance. It gave them agricultural room to feed populous groups of workers with food to meet their nutritional demands. The only thing that was missing was outside interaction (Newman, 55).
Following an agricultural surplus, vast trading opportunities arose. Egypt took advantage of their abundant food supply and began to trade it for other goods. Acquiring new goods enabled them to develop ideas in building methods and technology boomed with the addition of more large and more capable boats, metals, and wood (Newman, 58-59). Foods such as grains were also used to barter and trade within Egypt, and it was a common source of currency. Trade opened up Egypt’s doors to new opportunity that allowed its people to move on into the golden age of the New Kingdom, and it all was made possible by the gift of the Nile, but more importantly, by the valuable irrigation systems that made Egypt a prosperous nation.
The Inca Empire was an ecologically diverse paradise. The majestic Empire started along the Pacific Ocean in the low coastal valleys, and stretched over the Andes, all the way down into the Amazon Rainforest. This great ecological diversity helped the Inca grow a large variety of crops as well as an abundance of food (The Incas Remembered). It was a nation of millions, built up around their astonishing irrigation and watersystems, some in which are still in used today (The Incas Remembered). The Incas built irrigation canals which were lined with millions of rocks, allong sloped to form retaining walls. These enabled them to carry water from the melting snows of the Andes and nearby rivers for up to five hundred miles (The Incas). Water ran through the cities in canals called runners, which is where the Inca people got water to wash, drink, and cook (The Incas Remembered). Water brought into the cities was so essential to people on the mountains. The location was indeed close to paradise, but difficult to collect and goods and necesities to support a large population, so they greatly relied on these canals. The Incas had a strict policy to use the land and water carefully, and to never be wasteful. Their amazing irrigation systems used water to its full advantage, even up on the slopes of terraced farmland. They had hundred of levels of fields built to last countless centuries. Drainage systems worked allong with the intake canals to help develop a vast and abundant surplus of crops. The irrigational effects were highly sophisticated; for the canals were able to provided water to the roots of plants during a drought, and during heavy rain, they provided drainage so that the crops wouldn’t become drowned (Inca). Furthermore, the canals also provided sediment which were rich in nitrates, and these nitrates were used as fertilizer. The Inca utilised this concept throughout their whole Empire, and their canals worked in partnership with their roads throughout the empire building an extensive variety of crops in various climates that enabled them to feed the entire population (Inca). Not only could they feed their entire population, but they also had a massive surplus, and due to their storage techniques and food preservation, they were able to build up and maintain seven years worth of surplus food. Food was also used as a means for trade, as the Incas had no currency (Inca). The Incas used their skill to create water systems to bring vast amounts of water to them. After contructing such amazing stuctures, they had the time and a greater ability to expand their empire; no longer did the have to search to get enough food and water, for it was brought right to their fingertips. To support a large population, there needs to be allot of food, and that requires steady and sophisticated irrigation systems that bring a constant supply of water. The Incas were truly skilled engineers, who developed water systems so advance that they are still being used today. They are the solid base that gave the Inca the ability to sustain a high standard of living, and emmense expantion.
The liquid treasure of water has always played an important role in developing civilizations. However, it was not always handed to humans in readily available reserves. The development of water systems in ancient civilizations proved to offer significant advantages to those who constructed them. They brought about the basis for influential and strong and long-lasting civilizations by giving them the power of life, the prosperity that can only sprout from water. The Romans built and expanded their empire, as well as its economic and social diversity using vast piping systems and the development of the great aqueducts which allowed them to build up their grand populous city. Egypt built up its remarkable empire using the firm base of well-designed irrigation and water systems, allowing it to prosper and expand with its immense surplus of foods. For the Inca Empire, their great water and irrigation systems were perhaps the most advanced of their time, enabling them to expand their empire throughout a vast part of South America. These civilizations developed outstanding systems to harness the potential of water. It was only through the development of these systems that they could grow to possess their large numbers and powerful Empires. They brought the key to abundance in food, customs and religious practices, communal gatherings, and the overall ability to prosper; for these great feats of engineering brought to them water, the very foundation of life.


Works Cited

Agriculture and Food. 7 April 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inca>.


Ancient Irrigation. May 1999. 15 April 2007 <http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/~GEL115/115CH17oldirrigation.html>.


Boak, E.R and William G. Sinnigen. “The Emergence of Agriculture and Raising Livestock.” Ancient Civilizations. Ed. Don Nardo. Vol. 1. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, 2002. 40-50.


Boak, E.R and William G. Sinnigen. “The Founding of Rome, The Eternal City.” Ancient Civilizations. Ed. Don Nardo. Vol. 1. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, 2002. 211-218.


Inca. 7 April 2007 .


Newman, Garfield, et.al. Echoes from the Past. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, 2001.


Postel, Sandra. Egypt’s Nile Valley Basin Irrigation. 15 April 2007 <http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/nile/t1.html>.


Roman Aqueducts. 7 April 2007 .


Shaw, Ian. Exploring Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.


The Incas Remembered. DVD. Monterey Media Inc, 2005


The Incas. 22 April 2007 .
Trueman, Chris. Roman Baths. 15 April 2007 <http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/roman_baths.htm>.


Wilkinson, Gardner J. “The Ancient Egyptians; Their Life and Customs.” A Popular Account. Vol. 1. London: Bracken Books, 1988.

An In-Depth Comparison Between Tess of the d’Urbervilles and Treasure Island

Throughout history, novelists have always written about subjects that stir up the inner most passions and emotions of their readers. Subjects that captivate dreams and imaginations in ways nothing else can. Notable authors of the 1800’s came up with some of the most controversial tales for their time, for it was the Victorian age; a time of new and strong ideas fastened by the views of the church. For some of the most influential authors, this was a time when their text was taken beyond the story and out of context, stirring up some fiery emotions within the crowds. For Thomas Hardy, the author of Tess of the d’Urbervilles, this was definitely the case. His story of an innocent woman, tortured by the ideas of the church and the upper-class man, as well as the discussion of rape, was unthinkable to the Victorian reader. Hardy displayed Tess Durbeyfield as a victim of the times, “…Hardy was able half to suggest that Tess was more a passive victim of male aggression and idealization than an active participant in her own disastrous fate” (Brady 106). Writers of this time also captivated their readers imagination by taking them into tales only found in their wildest dreams. Robert Louis Stevenson captured his reader’s attention and drew their interest, but by using a different method compared to Hardy. In his classic novel Treasure Island, he tells of a tale of piracy, death and trickery, creating a story that would influence writers for years to come. It was his first full-length work of fiction, for which he became best-known; “In the 1800’s, despite his continuing poor health, Stevenson wrote many of his best-known works, Including Treasure Island” (“Robert Louis (Balfour) Stevenson.”). Although there is a difference in direct content of their stories, Tess of the d’Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy and Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson display comparable lessons and themes in mistakes impacting the future, the display and loss of innocence due to a tragic or sudden event, and appearance vs. reality.
Throughout the history of man, mistakes have always had an impact on the future. In most cases, the fallout from these mistakes are negative, causing hardships and irreversible happenings. These types of situations can be found in Tess of the d’Urbervilles, where they mostly revolve around Tess, and her misfortune. Shortly after the beginning of the novel, Tess committed her first mistake when she took responsibility for her drunken father, Jack Durbeyfield. She made the mistake of delivering bee hives for him with the horse, even though she was unable to drive. On the trip, Tess falls asleep and collides with an on-coming buggy, killing Prince, the family horse. Due to the accident, Tess feels obligated to go to the d’Urberville mansion, starting her years of future trouble, and her connection to Alec d’Urberville; “Well, I killed the horse, Mother…I suppose I ought to do something” (Hardy 47). Later in the novel, Tess commits her second mistake through falling in love with a man named Angel Clare, an upper-class man apprenticing at Talbothay’s dairy. After having Alec’s child, Tess felt she could never get married, nor love another man; but after Angel’s persistence to pursue their love through marriage, Tess gives in and goes against her beliefs. This was a big mistake in judgment for Tess, as she puts aside her inner unrest. From the very start of their marriage, they were burdened with ill omen, as a cock crowed three times as they exited the marriage hall in the afternoon, bringing in the biblical reference of betrayal. Their quick marriage ultimately lead to a tragic collapse in the very near future, due to hidden secrets of Tess’s past with Alec. Tess’s third mistake, and the one that had the largest impact over her future, or the future she could have had, was the murder of Alec d’Urberville. This is what lead her to her ultimate demise; the very act that she felt was her escape from earthly suffering, and the only way to break the wall between her and Angel. Due to this mistake, Tess was wanted for murder and her life lasted not long after, as justice must be served.
Mistakes can also be seen impacting the future in the novel Treasure Island. In the case of this novel, Jim Hawkins is a young man torn from his peaceful life as an inn-keeper and brought out to sea with treasure hungry mutineers. It was his first mistake that got him into that chaos; taking the map from Captain Billy Bones’ chest. This made him the one with the key to dreamed of riches, and the target for other mutineers, as expressed by Dr. Livesey, “We are not the only men who know of this paper” (Stevenson, Robert Louis. Treasure Island, 40). After Jim is sucked into this treasure hunting adventure, he commits his second mistake just before they set sail. Just as Tess failed to reveal her secret before her marriage, Jim fails to express his concern about the sea cook, who he believed portrayed a striking resemblance to the one-legged buccaneer the captain had previously warned about. Thinking he knew better than his instincts, Jim kept silent, letting all of the honest crew set out to sea with a bunch of bloodthirsty pirates. Once on the island, Jim and his honest men sought out a stronghold for defense against the mutineers. This is when he commits his third mistake, leaving his men alone, and seeking Ben Gunn’s boat. Ben Gunn was a man found deserted on the island upon arrival, and Jim felt it necessary to find the boat he had made to cut their ship, the Hispaniola, loose. While Jim was gone, his men were left weak in their defense, and were ambushed by the mutineers. Jim, upon return, could see where his short expedition had got him. He was surrounded by dangers, and ashamed to look his men in the face.
Tragic or sudden events can often change a person’s life quiet drastically. In the novel Tess of the d’Urbervilles, Tess displays innocence in her times before her many entanglements, but as the novel moves on, a tragic or sudden event brings about a loss of this innocence. Her innocence can be looked at from two perspectives, the physical perspective, as in her purity and virginity, but also an emotional and mental aspect, as in her innocence to experience and life’s troublesome manipulative ways. Unfolding from her first mistake, the death of Prince bring about Tess’s first loss of innocence. It becomes Tess’s first major experience with loss of life. She felt a sense of harm that for the first time, she had committed. The sorrow she felt over the matter drowned her in guilt, and stripped her of emotional innocence; once so free of any tragedy by her own doing, she was all of the sudden burdened with the death of the family horse. As Tess was sent to work off the loss of Prince, she encounters her first loss of innocence in a physical sense. When out near midnight returning to Trantridge from a nearby town, Alec offered Tess a ride home. When they take a break in the chase, Alec takes advantage of Tess and rapes her. This is a major turning point for Tess, for she is no longer innocent in terms of virginity. She becomes burdened with a child which forces her to grow up, and the unaccommodating townspeople force her to remain hidden to avoid harassment. Tess realizes how she was used, and questions her mother, Joan Durbeyfield, why she was never warned, “why didn’t you tell me there was danger in men folk? Why didn’t you warn me?” (Hardy 98). After years of anguish laid on Tess, she was driven to commit a crime that would rob her of any innocence she had to crimes of her own intentional doing. Tess decides to murder Alec d’Urberville, as she felt it to be the only release from her sufferings, and a cure for her and Angel. However it is through this action that Tess took the step to sin by her own will, losing the innocence she once had when she was sinned upon before. As a result, she lost her own innocence, as well as the innocence she had with society and the law; for she was now seen as a murderer.
Tragic or sudden events can also be seen leading to the loss of innocence in the novel treasure Island. Before Jim Hawkins even leaves for his hunt at sea, he is struck by the death of his father. It was the first death le had ever known, and due to the fact it was his own beloved father, he lost the innocence one has when they are a ignorant to the concept of death. This sudden tragedy hit Jim hard, and he was unable to think of anything else for some time. He was no longer afraid; “My poor father died quite suddenly, which put all other matters on one side” (Stevenson, Robert Louis. Treasure Island, 17). Just as in Tess of the d’Urbervilles, there can be seen a loss of innocence in these two characters, both resulting from their first death known. In both cases the character felt remorse, and something was lost in them that could never be replenished. After the tragic death of his father, Jim is quickly thrown aboard the great Hispaniola, the ship on which they would seek treasure with the Squire John Trelawney’s newly acquired crew. This sudden event forced Jim to lose the innocence he once had as a home-town boy. The great treasure hunt in which he was about to embark on was his first experience away from home, which surely brought on much more fear of the unknown world he had yet to experience. For Jim, this innocence to worldly experience was about to end, and he would have to adapt in order to survive. Their treasure hunting adventure suddenly came to a fork in the road when the mutineers turned on Jim and the rest of the honest crew. When Jim found himself alone aboard with one of these men, he believes his wits will get him out to safety. However, when Jim sees this man take out a knife, he knew there would only be one of them getting off alive. After constant betrayal and blood thirst from these mutineers, Jim was not feeling too sparing, and when the mutineer threw the knife at him, pinning his shoulder, he shot the pirate with his pistol, sending his lifeless body overboard into the blue sea. Just like Tess in Tess of the d’Urbervilles, Jim takes the life of another, which resulted from a sudden outburst of emotion, and tragic history. For Jim, once a law biding citizen who would never do wrong, this was a major loss of innocence, for like Tess, It was the first time he had committed such a crime out of his own will.
Life can be full of false appearances. One must always keep in the back of their mind the chance of a very different reality emerging; one which was never, or could never have been expected. In the novel Tess of the d’Urbervilles, appearance is often very different from reality. This can be seen starting from the beginning of the novel, as Tess’s mother, Joan Durbeyfield appears to be a generous caring mother. Tess always observes her working terribly hard for her family, and due to her husband Jack’s addiction to the bottle, she was seen as the major care taker and role model to the children, besides the obvious attention they showed towards Tess. However, Joan’s character, like many people struck with financial hardships, is quickly turned towards jealous and selfish like behavior when confronted with the idea of potential riches. Joan, upon hearing of the news from Trantridge, turns into a selfish, neglecting, and potentially dangerous mother. She carelessly sends Tess of to claim kin, not warning her of the potentially life altering outcome. When Tess returned pregnant, Joan says one of the most unimaginable statements imaginable, “Why didn’t ye think of doing some good for your family instead o’thinking only of yourself” (Hardy 97); truly showing the reality of her character, and her selfish worries. Another appearance seemingly full of potential was the whole idea around the job in Trantridge. The opportunity for Tess to go work for Alec seemed like her chance to help her family move up in life. Alec himself even seemed like a kind and generous man, giving her the job, and offering out any help to her family. Soon after this kind invite, Tess began to see what Alec was truly after; a woman, to simply satisfy his sexual urges. Starting out as a kind man at first appearance, Alec quickly turned into Tess’s worst nightmare, raping her, and burdening her with a child to raise all on her own thus beginning her life of troubles. When Tess finally met Angel, he is seen as a final relief; a way to ease her suffering. He was Tess’s first true love, the one that Tess would risk it all for, trusting herself to him in all aspects. Shortly after their marriage, Angel seemingly loses his senses, and becomes just another man out for the idealistic pure woman. Upon Tess’s revealing of her past, Angel abandons her, and moves to Brazil, leaving her once again to fend for herself. To Tess, this was a life ruining state of affairs which drove her to give up on all of society and herself.
Appearance is also very different from reality in the novel Treasure Island. However, unlike in Tess of the d’Urbervilles, the reality is not always completely destructive or disastrous, but instead starts new adventures. Starting from the beginning of the novel, Captain Billy Bones just seemed like another rum-soaked buccaneer with only the self illusion of valuable knowledge. He looked as if he was a man gone senile with no value to his words. However, upon arrival, he carried into the inn with him a chest which was shrouded in mysterious potential. After the poor captain’s death, his chest was opened disclosing a map which held the key to countless riches. Captain Bill surely knew more than he revealed, or what others thought of him. The valuable reality behind this seemingly unimportant Captain greatly influenced the novel and brought about the realization that had he survived, he would have had much more to offer. Before they all left to sea on the great Hispaniola, John Trelawney, the squire, believed to have set up a good crew, including a cook named John Silver. Jim and Dr. Livesey felt safe and settled in the squires confidence, as he told them he had put together the finest crew in England. For Jim, a trustworthy crew came as a great opportunity, but as Trantridge was for Tess in Tess of the d’Urbervilles, it was only in false appearance, overall too good to be true. Just as Tess learned the reality of Alec when it was too late, Jim learned the true character of the crew out at sea. The reality of his situation was that these men wanted the treasure, and if it took trickery and piracy to get it, then that’s what they would do. When Jim first meets Benn Gunn, he appeared to be a man who could only offer geographical help on the island. He seems to be a man faded to instincts and insanity after being stranded for a long three years. However, Ben turned out to be a bigger help than expected when the mutineers went to dig up the treasure, and it was apparently gone. It was Ben who notifies Jim of its location as he used his time while stranded to relocate the treasure. This put Jim and the honest men at the upper hand, now having control over the treasure; “…Ben Gunn, the half-idiot maroon, was the hero from beginning to end” (Stevenson, Robert Louis. Treasure Island, 214). Benn Gunn comes out as a final character in the novel dedicated to justice, first appearing as an unfortunate cast-away, then turning into the key to their chased success.
Thomas Hardy and Robert Louis Stevenson are both astounding writers who cleverly incorporated captivating themes into their novels. Hardy’s daring style in Tess of the d’Urbervilles to challenge society and the church brought through the harsh reality about the treatment of women. The strong lessons and morals displayed throughout the novel have the power to impact the reader, and its story has proven itself a classic, making Hardy of the most notable British authors. Through Treasure Island, Stevenson, although on a less controversial note, has also created a classic. It is seen to be one of the most adventurous novels of the 1800’s, packed with tales of betrayal, piracy, death and riches. In fact, it was unique in the idea that through all of the tale, there is no obvious emphasis on teaching morals. Morals or not, Treasure Island has influenced countless novels, as well as provided the base for many stories and films created thereafter. Though the content and general mood of their stories are different, Tess of the d’Urbervilles and Treasure Island display quite comparable lessons and themes which were essential to the novels. Past mistakes were most definitely seen impacting the future, especially for the two novel’s main characters, Tess and Jim. They remind society that for every action there is a reaction. There can also be seen a display and loss of innocence in these two characters, that was brought about by a sudden or tragic event, ultimately changing who they would be forever. Appearance vs. reality also proved to be a common theme; one in which brought the stories to a higher level of suspense, and gave the reader a deeper look into the true characters. The deep passions seen in Tess of the d’Urbervilles, and the adventurous tales of Treasure Island will surely continue to influence both readers and writers to come. Not only do they tell fascinating tales, but they bring the reader back in time to experience life in another’s shoes, far more difficult than the experiences of today.


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